The Epistemology of Hume and Kant Essay Example for Free

The Epistemology of Hume and Kant Essay According to David Hume, the perceptions of the mind can be divided into two classes that are â€Å"distinguished by their different degrees of force and vivacity† (Hume, 2, 12). These two classes Hume designates as Thoughts (or Ideas) and Impressions. Ideas are â€Å"less lively perceptions† and Impressions are the â€Å"more lively perceptions. † Kant assumes that Ideas are merely weaker copies of Impressions. According to Hume, â€Å"the most lively thought is still inferior to the dullest sensation† (2, 11 par. 1). The remembrance of perception is merely a copy of actual perception, and all ideas are merely weaker copies of Impressions. Hume explains that it will seem that thought is unbounded and limitless, but actually thought is â€Å"confined within very narrow limits. † The apparent boundless creativity of the mind comes from â€Å"compounding, transposing, augmenting, or diminishing the materials afforded us by the senses and experience† (2, 13 par. 1-2). By this Hume means that no matter how far-fetched the products of imagination becomes, all ideas are connected and ultimately traceable to an Impression or Impressions. (3, 18). According to Hume, the mind normally connects ideas with each other through one or more of three basic principles: Resemblance, Contiguity, and Cause-and-Effect (3, 19), and that â€Å"all reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. † (4. 1, 22). However, Hume claims knowledge of cause and effect, without exception, is never attained by a priori reasoning. All knowledge of cause and effect comes entirely from experience. (4. 1, 23 par. 2). â€Å"Every effect is a distinct event from its cause. It could not, therefore, be discovered in the cause. † (4. 1, 25, par. 2). All reasoning can be categorized into two: demonstrative reasoning (concerning relations of ideas) and (intuitive) moral reasoning (concerning matter of fact and existence). Hume points out that all thought concerning existence are based on cause-and-effect, which in turn is based entirely on experience. Any conclusions that we derive from experience are based on the assumption that events of the future will conform to events of the past. (4. 2, 30 par. 2). However, this is not intuitive nor demonstrative (4. 2, 32). For instance, there is no process of argument through which, for instance, a person can conclude that whenever a billiard ball is hit by another billiard ball, it will move. (4. 2, 33 par 2). Even a highly intelligent person who for the first time observes the world would witness a sequence of events but would not be able to determine any cause and effect relationships between what he witnesses. â€Å"Such a person, without more experience, could never employ his conjecture or reasoning concerning any matter of fact, or be assured of anything beyond what was immediately present to his memory and senses. † But eventually, through experience, he will be able to form conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of events and objects. (5. 1, 35 par 1). According to Hume, the principle through which a person can form these conclusions is Custom or Habit (5. 1, 36). Hume’s concluding words are that any piece of literature that does not have â€Å"abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number† nor â€Å"experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence† â€Å"†¦can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. † The nature of knowledge according to Immanuel Kant For Immanuel Kant, knowledge (and thus reality) is constructed by the mind, not passively derived through the senses. In other words, the mind shapes the world. Kants Critique of Pure Reason is an attempt to answer the problems of the nature of knowledge—what it is and how it is obtained. Kant looks at the relationship between a priori knowledge, or knowledge based on reason alone, and a posteriori knowledge, or knowledge gained from the world. According to Kant, we have a priori intuitions and concepts. We have innate, logical knowledge, and this knowledge enables us to grasp a posteriori knowledge, to â€Å"understand† the external world. For example, Kants view is that space and time are just mental constructs, that space and time are forms of seeing, which serves as a precept to our experiences (Kant, a20-a23, a25-a38). Another example is the notion of causality, which in Kants view is a form of organizing mechanism that we impose upon nature to render it understandable (2a1-2a19). Kant argued that reality, as we perceive it, cannot be accounted for purely by sense perception. Kant holds that what we refer to and perceive as the external world is an artifice of the mind. His argument is that the mind itself contributes substantially to, and even synthesizes, its own knowledge (i11). According to Kant, the appearances of things are â€Å"objects of intuition†, which is one form of (mental) representation. For him this includes physical sensations (such as pain). Kants view is that appearances do not exist by themselves, but only relatively to external reality. That is, appearances do not exist independently of the human power of representation (t21). According to this view, the world, as we perceive it, is not actual reality, but is a phenomenon of actual reality as constructed by the mind. He argues that the shape of an object, for example, does not come from the object itself, but comes from us, as a result of interaction with the object Sensory input needs to be processed and recognized through the filter of the mind or it would not mean anything to us. For Kant, there are things-in-themselves, which exist independently of the human mind, and appearances, which exist only in the mind. The existence of appearances, according to Kant, entails the existence of things-in-themselves, but not in the way that we know. Thus, since the existence of things-in-themselves is just a hypothesis, the relationship of our perceptions to actual reality remains suspect, and we can never really be sure if what we perceive are not just purely constructs of the mind (p38). Hence, for him, we can never really know the â€Å"true† reality, because this reality is only perceived as it is filtered through our senses, senses that structure reality. We can only gain knowledge of appearances. Criticism of Hume There are some important difficulties in Hume’s work that he fails to address. One flaw in Hume’s arguments that Kant points out is that one of Hume’s fundamental assumptions is that perceptions (or Impressions) correspond exactly to the â€Å"real† world, although for many other philosophers the very nature of reality was a problem. Another is that Hume assumes that all knowledge comes from experience, but the notion of causation and necessity are also not explained by Hume, who claims that everything that one knows is ultimately traceable to the senses. It can be argued that the perception of causation and necessity come from a priori knowledge. References Hume, David. â€Å"An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. † 23 Dec 2006. http://www. gutenberg. org/dirs/etext06/8echu10. txt. Kant, Immanuel. â€Å"Critique of Pure Reason. †

Technology †The Last Great Frontier :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Technology – The Last Great Frontier Introduction The technological frontier marks one of the last chapters in the development of American society. We have survived the cultivation of land, ranging from the first exploration of Christopher Columbus to the last expeditions of Buffalo Bill and the Wild West. Now, as there is no longer any land to explore, we must focus our attention on the rapidly increasing technological age. Without a doubt technology has blazed a pathway to a new and unmapped educational frontier. This frontier is pioneered by a completely new academic system: distance learning. The "distance learning" frontier features education of students from outside the traditional classroom setting through the use of technology. For example, quizzes are taken online, classes are taught over televisions, and degrees are earned on the Internet. Although this new and unexplored path has vastly expanded our academic horizons, just like the West expanded our country, we must not travel into the frontier without nurturing it first. In order to fully utilize technology we must cultivate the technology frontier in order to tame its communicational dangers. Background Just as the West promised to satisfy the needs and dreams of the American people in the nineteenth century, technology promises to satisfy our educational goals in the twenty-first century. The introduction of the Internet in the 1980’s served as the first pioneer to the technological frontier. Never before in history had academic information been so readily available at the click of a button. This new system of learning sparked excitement and interest in the minds of students and faculty members because it provided a potentially better way of learning. At first glance, the technological frontier creates an illusion of a quick and convenient educational system; however, this is not totally true. The technology frontier is still a new and unmapped territory, and there have not been an abundance of studies or writings that explain its possible benefits or dangers. Chris Piotrowski and Stephen Vodanovich, pioneers in the expansion of technological based learning, conducted a synthesis of the available research in the field. Their procedure for identifying relevant studies was to conduct a series of searches on educational databases. The results showed that "investigations about technological based instruction have not been supported by the extent of literature" (3). The conductors of this experiment claim that successful ways to incorporate technology into education have not been carefully examined or researched. Technology – The Last Great Frontier :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers Technology – The Last Great Frontier Introduction The technological frontier marks one of the last chapters in the development of American society. We have survived the cultivation of land, ranging from the first exploration of Christopher Columbus to the last expeditions of Buffalo Bill and the Wild West. Now, as there is no longer any land to explore, we must focus our attention on the rapidly increasing technological age. Without a doubt technology has blazed a pathway to a new and unmapped educational frontier. This frontier is pioneered by a completely new academic system: distance learning. The "distance learning" frontier features education of students from outside the traditional classroom setting through the use of technology. For example, quizzes are taken online, classes are taught over televisions, and degrees are earned on the Internet. Although this new and unexplored path has vastly expanded our academic horizons, just like the West expanded our country, we must not travel into the frontier without nurturing it first. In order to fully utilize technology we must cultivate the technology frontier in order to tame its communicational dangers. Background Just as the West promised to satisfy the needs and dreams of the American people in the nineteenth century, technology promises to satisfy our educational goals in the twenty-first century. The introduction of the Internet in the 1980’s served as the first pioneer to the technological frontier. Never before in history had academic information been so readily available at the click of a button. This new system of learning sparked excitement and interest in the minds of students and faculty members because it provided a potentially better way of learning. At first glance, the technological frontier creates an illusion of a quick and convenient educational system; however, this is not totally true. The technology frontier is still a new and unmapped territory, and there have not been an abundance of studies or writings that explain its possible benefits or dangers. Chris Piotrowski and Stephen Vodanovich, pioneers in the expansion of technological based learning, conducted a synthesis of the available research in the field. Their procedure for identifying relevant studies was to conduct a series of searches on educational databases. The results showed that "investigations about technological based instruction have not been supported by the extent of literature" (3). The conductors of this experiment claim that successful ways to incorporate technology into education have not been carefully examined or researched.

Final Examination Essay

1. The essential steps in performing a systems study are (in order of occurrence): a) Analysis, design, implementation and initial operation, follow‑up b) Design, planning, follow‑up, analysis, and implementation c) Planning, system specification, analysis, production, implementation d) Planning, analysis, design, implementation, and follow‑up 2. Which of the following is intended to solve the problem that financial data used in one application is not easily transferable to other applications? a) XMP b)ERP c) XBRL d) XMLP 3.Information systems auditors are: a) Auditors who are concerned with analyzing risks associated with computerized information systems b) Individuals who often work closely with financial auditors c) Auditors who have a lot of technical expertise related to information technology d) all of the above 4. Which of the following is not an ability of client/server computing? a) Alter data stored elsewhere on the network b) Process a transaction that may affect data stored on both client and server computers c) Query or manipulate the warehoused data on the server d) Increased networking capabilities between different file formats on multiple systems 5. Software that enables businesses and government agencies to transmit and manipulate financial data on an organization-wide basis best describes: a. Communication software b. CAD software c. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software d. Programming software 6. All of the following are programming languages except: a. Java b. HTML c. C++ d. COBOL e. ERP 7. Data flow diagrams: a)Accomplish the same purpose as system flowcharts b)Are different from system flowcharts since they focus on a logical view of the information system c)Are useless for planning a new system d)Are never used in analyzing an existing system 8. All of the following are controls for end-user computing except: a) Formally evaluate large projects b) Formalize documentation standards c) Limit the number of employees authorized to create end-user applications d) all of the above are important controls 9. The textbook identified seven reasons why documentation of an AIS is important. For which of the following reasons would the user guides, procedure manuals and operating instructions be most important? a) Depicting how the system works b) Training users c) Designing new systems d) Standardizing communications with others 10. Business organizations are recognizing the value of sales data and are purchasing software solutions to gather, maintain, and use these data to provide better service and promote customer loyalty. These software solutions are called: a) Customer relations data solutions b) Customer relationship management solutions c) Sales data management solutions d) none of the above 11. Which of the following statements best describes business process outsourcing? a) A company focuses on its core business processes and contracts with another firm to do the other processes b) Companies frequently outsource core business processes c) Due to networked enterprises and advanced technology, more employees may work from their homes or alternate locations d) Initially, companies engaged in business process outsourcing to offer employees more opportunities to travel and more career choices for advancement 12. Networked enterprises and globalization have enabled a new business model called â€Å"business-without-boundaries.† Which of the following statements describes this business model? a) Companies no longer have all of their employees in one location b) It is called offshoring and companies contract with firms in other countries to do such business processes as human resources, payroll, and accounting c) Companies are under a great deal of scrutiny to manage costs and generate revenue so they contract with foreign firms to do various business processes at a lower cost to the company d) all of the above statements describe this model 13. Which of the following is not a concern of the financing process? a) Effective cash management b) Optimizing an organization’s cost of capital c) Minimizing an organization’s borrowings d) Projecting cash flows 14. Business process reengineering efforts sometimes fail because: a. Management gets too involved in the process e) Management is too optimistic regarding its expectations from its implementation b. Management support can never overcome employee resistance c. Employees will never accept change 15. Which of the following technologies are now used in conjunction with automated production process systems to increase efficiencies? a) Radio frequency technology b)Bar code scanners c) RF IDs and advanced electronic tags d)all of the above e)none of the above 16. According to the chapter, which of these statements is most accurate? a)Most computer abuse is performed as retaliation against employers b) Very little computer crime is committed for personal gain c) Some computer abuse is performed simply to meet a challenge d) We catch most computer abusers with good accounting controls 17.Which of the following is probably the primary reason accountants should be concerned about computer crime and abuse? a)They might lose their job if they don’t detect computer crime or abuse in their organization b)They might lose their professional credibility and license if computer crime or abuse continues for a long time in their organization and they do not detect it c)They are responsible for designing, implementing, and monitoring the control procedures for AISs d)none of the above 18.One of the major crimes identified by the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 is intent to illegally obtain information or tangible property through the use of computers. Which of the following methods might accomplish this type of crime if the perpetrator can change data before, during, or after they are entered into a computer system? a)Salami technique b)Data diddling c)Shoulder surfing d)Trojan horse program 19.Regarding a company’s audit trail, which of the following statements is true? a) Because of the complexities involved in establishing an audit trail, a good audit trail normally makes it more difficult for an individual to follow the flow of a company’s business transactions through the  company’s information system b) In actuality, the audit trail established within a company’s information system is an unimportant element of the company’s internal control system When a company’s audit trail becomes more difficult to follow, this causes an increase in the risk of errors or irregularities taking place in the processing of accounting transactions and not being detected c) A company’s policies and procedures manual should not be part of its audit trail since confidential information is included within this manual 20.Which of the following statements is true regarding timely performance reports? a. In many companies, these reports are the major means of providing information to management concerning the actual operations of the companies’ internal control systems b. These reports should only include monetary data c. Since these reports fail to provide feedback to management on the operations of previously implemented internal control procedures, other techniques are needed to provide this feedback to managers d. The complexity that a computer introduces into a company’s information system will typically prevent the preparation of timely performance reports for the company’s management 21. _________________ describes the policies, plans, and procedures implemented by a firm to protect its assets. a) Internal control b) SAS No. 94 c) SOX, Section 404 d) Enterprise risk management 22. General controls within IT environments that affect personnel include: a) Use of computer accounts b) Separation of duties c) Informal knowledge of employees d) all of the above affect personnel 23. Which of the following best describes a fundamental control weakness  often associated with automated data processing systems? a. Automated ­ data processing equipment is more subject to systems error than manual processing is subject to human error b. Automated data processing equipment processes and records similar transactions in a similar manner c. Automated data processing procedures for detection of invalid and unusual transactions are less effective than manual control procedures d. Functions that would normally be separated in a manual system are combined in an automated data processing system 24. The textbook identifies a number of issues that should be considered when developing a security policy. One of the issues is â€Å"identify threats†. Which of the following is not an example of this issue? a) What assets need to be protected b) What are the sources of potential security problems c) External threats are viruses, worms, retaliations from former employees d) Internal threats are misuse of assets by employees and embezzlement 25 Which of these is not a phase in the life cycle of an information system? a) Planning b) Analysis c) Control d) Implementation 26. A poorly-planned information system can result in: a)Employee resistance and even sabotage b)Inflexible systems that are hard to maintain or modify c)Systems that solve the wrong problems d)all of these 27.Which of the following is not a general objective in the design of an information system? a)A system should provide information which is timely and relevant for decision making by management and operating personnel b)The output of a system should be highly accurate c)A system should have sufficient capacity to accommodate levels of normal activity; any additional capacity proves too costly in the long run d)A system should be as simple as permitted so that its structure and operation can be easily understood and its procedures easily accomplished e)A system should be flexible to accommodate changes of a reasonable magnitude when required 28. A computerized AIS is harder to audit than a manual system for all of the following reasons except: a) The file information is not human readable b) The volume of transaction records and master file records is usually much larger in computerized systems than in manual systems c) An audit trail does not exist in a computerized AIS d) Computerized systems often use remote real-time data processing, thus complicating the tracing of transaction records to their sources 29. Which of the following is not one of the groups of SOX compliance requirements? a) requirements to use an IT auditor to evaluate controls b) regulations governing executive reporting and conduct c) rules about financial statement reporting d) audit committee/corporate governance requirements 30. Three common techniques auditors use to test computer programs are: a) Test data, integrated test facilities, and parallel simulation b) Test data, edit checks, and integrated test facilities c) Test data, program change control, and parallel simulation d) Program change control, edit checks, and parallel simulation 31. The term data encryption refers to: a) Storing data in safe places called â€Å"crypts† b) Transforming data into secret codes c) Scrambling data in random ways that cannot be unscrambled d) none of these 32. The term key in the context of data encryption refers to: e) A physical key similar to a house key f) A logical key similar to the primary key of a data file g) A mathematical function used for encryption purposes e) A computer function key that can be found on keyboards 33. All of the following are benefits of XBRL except: a) Companies can file financial information in one format, avoiding the errors that may come from reentering data multiple times b) The SEC accepts XBRL-format for electronic filing of financial statement reports c) XBRL permits the automatic and reliable exchange of financial information across all software formats and technologies, including the Internet f) all of the above are benefits of XBRL d) none of the above are benefits of XBRL 34.All of these are reasons why databases are important to AISs except: a) AIS databases store valuable information b) Many AISs are large and therefore potentially unwieldy c) The databases of some organizations are very complex d) The hard disk space used to store AIS databases is comparatively expensive g) all of these are reasons why databases are important to AISs 35.A major advantage of relational databases is: a)All records are stored together b)No pointers are used c)An expandable index is used d)It closely resembles a flat file 36. In recent years many businesses have formed a common information source within their business organization called a database. One of the advantages of building databases is the simultaneous updating of files with common data elements. Another major advantage of the database concept is that: a) Database systems can be used in microcomputers as well as on large computers b) Database systems are simple to install and maintain c) Database systems are generally less expensive than separate file maintenance systems d) Less duplication of data occurs with a database system e) Fewer skilled people are required to run a database system than any other system 1. The process of data normalization refers to: )a Eliminating data errors and other problems from â€Å"normal data† b)Scaling data to values between zero and one c)Storing data in normal storage media such as hard disks d)none of these 38. Database management systems are important to accountants because: a) They automate file storage tasks and enable managers to generate worthwhile financial reports b They eliminate data redundancy )b) They are unique data structures which accountants have never used before )c) They are easy to develop and therefore save money )d) They are energy efficient 39. Which of these is true about finding data in multimedia databases? a) It is not possible to search them because graphics have no text keys for searching b) It is not possible to search them because audio objects have no text keys for searching )c It is possible to search for items in them because such characteristics as â€Å"speaker† or â€Å"subject† can be used as search parameters

What factors determins the effectiveness of public health interventions Discuss with reference to at least two contrasting examples. - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2368 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Introduction The health of the whole population is a very important issue. Conditions which are likely to affect the whole population or large sections of the population are considered to be public health issues and are the subject of specific healthcare promotions and interventions. These can take a range of forms; those aimed at raising awareness of symptoms or lifestyle factors that are implicated in developing a particular condition; management of health conditions to improve quality of life and/or longevity or recognition of symptoms to obtain early treatment. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "What factors determins the effectiveness of public health interventions? Discuss with reference to at least two contrasting examples." essay for you Create order Public health interventions are developed to address identified public health issues (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2015). Once these are put in place, it is important to be able to assess the impact of the interventions and their effectiveness in respect of the present situation and also to increase the knowledge base for development of further interventions in the future (Brownson, et al., 2010). This essay will consider the ways in which the effectiveness of public health interventions can be determined. Discussion One of the main factors that needs to be considered in public health interventions is cost-effectiveness (The Kings Fund, 2014). The NHS has increasing demands on its services and so, when developing new interventions or reviewing those already in place, cost effectiveness is one of the most important issues. A further aspect of the effectiveness of public health interventions is the extent to which they have demonstrably achieved the aims set for the intervention (Scutchfield Keck, 2003). These two areas will now be considered in greater detail. There is a finite budget available to the NHS to provide healthcare and this has to be utilised in the most efficient way. The economic constraints that have been in place for some time have created an even greater need for financial efficiency. One way that this can be achieved is through reducing the numbers of people who are suffering from conditions which are considered to be avoidable. Conditions such as diabetes and obesity for e xample, are considered to be largely avoidable by people changing lifestyle habits to improve their health. Thus a range of public health interventions have been directed to focus on these types of issues in order to prevent people from becoming ill as this would represent a substantial saving in costs of treatment for subsequent illnesses. It would also provide benefit to the public in that people would lead longer, healthier lives. However, preventative interventions present difficulties in measuring their effectiveness. A reduction in the numbers of people developing diabetes, for instance, may be attributable to a public health intervention or it may be the result of one or more other factors. The individuals measured may not have developed the condition anyway and so it cannot be proven that the intervention itself was solely responsible for them remaining well. As it can be difficult to accurately measure effectiveness of outcomes, the cost-effectiveness is also difficult to a ssess. Historically, preventative healthcare promotion has been a problematic area due to the difficulties in establishing effectiveness and this made obtaining funding for such activities particularly challenging. However, the increasing demand for services has meant that there has been a shift in perspective and a greater focus on prevention. Thus, the means of evaluating public health interventions in this area has become important. Although the financial implications cannot be the sole driver for health promotion, financial issues are of necessity a major factor as there are obligations on the NHS to produce evidence that their funding has been properly and effectively spent. The effectiveness of health promotions from the perspective of health improvement of the population should be the primary motivation of interventions rather than cost. In order to improve public health, there are a range of options for interventions. The impact of health interventions was described by Fr ieden, (2010) as being in the formof a five-tier pyramid with the bottom tier being the most effective as it reaches the largest sector of the population and has the greatest potential to improve the social/economic determinants of health. The higher tiers of the pyramid relate to areas where the individual is helped to make healthy choices. Topics that are within the bottom tier of the pyramid include the improvements in health brought about by changing lifestyle habits such as smoking. Wide-scale promotions and interventions have been in place for many years and this has reduced the numbers of people who already smoke together with encouraging people not to begin smoking. As a result, the risk factors of health issues such as heart conditions has been reduced. Whilst this may not completely prevent some people from developing such conditions in terms of public health, which takes the wider perspective, a higher proportion of people will be at a lower risk. Thus, the effectiveness of interventions in this case can be measured by the proportion of the population who currently smoke, who have given up smoking and who have started smoking by comparison to previous years records (Durkin, et al., 2012). The numbers of people coming forward for help through smoking cessation provisions offered by their GPs can also be measured, together with the effectiveness of the those interventions in helping people to achieve their goal to stop smoking. The longstanding interventions to reduce the numbers of people with HIV/AIDS also fell within the same category of public health interventions (as just described in respect of smoking) once it was clear that it was a potential risk to a large section of the population. In this instance, there was a large amount of public health promotional activity when the issue was first known in the 1980s but this has largely subsided currently with few if any national high profile promotions/interventions (Bertozzi, et al., 2006). Howeve r, the risk has not been eradicated and there has been an increase in older people developing the condition (AVERT, 2015). This may be due to them not considering they are at risk or they may not have been targeted by the original campaigns which had a greater focus on the homosexual communities, needle using drug addicts and sexually active, younger adults. Married couples were not then considered to be the primary target audience for such campaigns. This demonstrates that there is a need for on-going interventions, particularly in terms of public awareness, to ensure that there is a consistent and improving impact (AVERT, 2015). Unless a health risk has been eradicated, there is likely to be a need for continuing interventions to maintain public knowledge levels. The way in which HIV/AIDS and smoking are directed at the wider population are examples of Friedens bottom sections of the pyramid. When interventions are applied in the top levels of Friedens pyramid they address indi viduals more directly, rather than the whole population (2010). Thus, it could be argued that such interventions would overall, have a greater impact as any public changes need to involve each individual changing. Unless each person is reached by the intervention and perceives that it is a valuable change for them, publicly directly interventions will have reduced effectiveness. National interventions will of necessity be broadly based and they will, therefore, not reach all those people to whom it is aimed as they may feel that it does not apply to them. Thus, the use of interventions that are more specifically targeted to individuals can take into account their socio-economic status and other factors to make the interventions more easily seen to be applicable to them (Frieden, 2010 ). A different view of public health interventions considers the situation for people with terminal or long term conditions. Many of the interventions focus heavily on the medical model and do not ta ke into account the impact on the patient or how they would prefer to be cared for. The medical view of what constitutes good health may be considered to be a more laboratory based, theoretical view that does not necessarily reflect the lived experience of individuals (Higgs, et al., 2005). Physical incapacity may not impact badly on an individual who has found ways to live a fulfilling life whilst someone who is considered fit and well may not consider that they have good quality of life (Asadi-Lari, et al., 2004). Therefore, the impact of interventions on the public also needs to be considered. A medically effective intervention may be unpleasant or difficult for the patient to endure and thus, viewed as being less effective. Furthermore, if the intervention is too unpleasant the patient may fail to comply and thus, also not obtain the level of effectiveness that the medical model would suggest it should (Asadi-Lari, et al., 2004). One area of public health that has proved to b e somewhat controversial in recent years is that of immunisation. The possible links between the MMR vaccine and autism, for instance, has impacted heavily on the numbers of people having their children immunised (BMJ, 2013). Vaccination is an important branch of public health and relies upon sufficient people being immunised against diseases so that should isolated cases occur the disease will not spread. Many parents today will be unaware of the health implications of illnesses such as German measles and mumps as vaccination has made cases rare. The rarity of the cases has also led to the incorrect belief that these illnesses have been eradicated. Therefore, in this instance the effectiveness of the intervention has been varied by the influence of the media reports or adverse outcomes. The fear that was generated has been difficult to overcome and this has resulted in a loss of faith in the process. This then results in reduced effectiveness of the intervention. However, it can pr ove very difficult to restore public support following situation such as this that have continued for a long time. The impact can be measured in both the numbers of people coming forward to have their children immunised and in the numbers of cases of the various illnesses that occur each year. The current statistics, however, do suggest that the levels of immunisation with MMR has now been restored to an appropriate level (NHS, 2013). The provision of the flu vaccine is another instance where public health interventions may have varying effectiveness. The actual effectiveness of a good vaccine is not considered to be 100% when the correct formula has been provided. In 2014, however, the vaccine was not for the actual strain of flu that occurred and so there was little protection provided (Public Health England, 2015). As a result, it is likely that there will be a downturn in the numbers of people who will come forward to receive the flu vaccination this year as the value may be perceived to be doubtful. This also demonstrates the need to provide the public with correct information so that they are aware of the potential effectiveness of the intervention. So in the case of flu, if the vaccine has a 60% chance of preventing the illness this should perhaps be specifically stated. There may be a level at which the majority of people feel that it is not worth having the vaccination. If, hypothetically, an effectiveness of less than 30% was considered by the majority of people to be so low that it was not worth having the vaccination, there could be few people immunised and a major epidemic could follow. Therefore, it is important that the information provided is correct and that the intervention itself is seen to be of sufficient value to the individual to warrant them making that choice to take advantage of what is offered (NHS, 2015). Conclusion This essay has asserted that the effectiveness of public health interventions can be viewed from two main perspectives: the cost effectiveness of the provision and the impact on the target audience. Whilst there are considerable pressures in the NHS financially, this should not be the primary consideration in respect of public health. The aim of public health interventions is to improve the health and well-being of the population as a whole and uses a wide range of methods to achieve this. Some provisions are aimed at the whole population and others are designed for the individual or smaller target groups. For these to be effective, they need to reach the target audience and have meaning for them so that they will be encouraged to take the required action. Continuous changes in the provision may also be needed to ensure that long term issues remain in the public awareness. Bibliography Asadi-Lari, M., Tamburini, M. Gray, D., 2004. Patients needs, satisfaction, and health related quality of life: Towards a comprehensive model. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes , 2(32). AVERT, 2015. HIV/AIDS Statistics 2012. 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